Easy one this time :-

Why does this aircraft carry this small graphic image on its fuselage side ?

I make no apologies for the quality of this pic.

Following on from the recent run on PAL XL750's I offer the following two.

ZK-JDQ at Hamilton on 20-03-2008 (bound for Germany).

And ZK-FNZ at Feilding on 25-03-2008 with a couple of other bits added to its airframe..

I changed the LS(1)-417 so that the trailing edge gap is zero (=sharpest achievable) instead of the large gap present in that airfoil (Janne's Mini-Sytky does not have this gap while Panu's Mini-Sytky has). According to simulation with Javafoil, this decreases the drag quite significantly. The airfoil has good Clmax at the same time with the low drag (approaches almost NLF414F).

I calculated that Clmax of 2.88 is possible with this profile with full span flaps with fowler inboard section. 

Quick calculation with aerocalc shows that the following might be theoretically achievable:

AR 9

Clmax 2.88

Wing area 4.6 m2

span 6.4 m

Wing loading 144 kg/m2 29 lbs/sqft

L/D max 22

Stall speed 55 kts

Max level speed 260 kts 480 km/h with Rotax 914 (90 hp required out of 115, max continuous 100 hp->ok)

best glide speed 150 kts

empty weight 366 kg

mtow 666 kg

Full span flaps with flapped ailerons:

In board wing has 60% span fowler flaps. Outboard wing, the remaining 40% consists plain flap type flaperons with similar mechanism than used in Mini-Sytky.

deltaClmax_fowler = 0.6 * 1.67 + 0.4 * 0.9 = 1.362

For airfoil with Clmax 1.2 the maximum Clmax on landing configuration is thus 1.32 + 1.362 = 2.68

This allows smaller wing area and higher wing loading to be used without sacrificing takeoff and landing performance too much.

Another variation with single slotted flaps:

deltaClmax_singleslotted = 0.6*1.18 + 0.4*0.9 = 1.06

+1.06 in Clmax still is a very good value and better that would be obtained with full span flaperon (+0.9). For airfoil with Clmax of 1.32 this yields Clmax of 2.37.

This idea has not been tested in practice and is not guaranteed to work.

Effects on aircraft:

Aircraft with 60% span plain flap and Wortman FX 38-153 (no full span high lift device):

Clmax = 1.3 + 0.9*0.6 

deltaClmax = 0.54

Clmax => 1.84

86 hp required for 200 kts cruise

wing loading: 92 kg / m2

wing area: 7.2 m2

stall speed: 55 kts

design cruise: 200 kts

Cdtot = 0.011 (with boundary layer suction)

Same aircraft with full span flaperon and Wortman FX 38-153:

Clmax = 1.3+0.9 =  2.20

Same aircraft parameters:

76 hp required for 200 kts cruise

wing loading: 110 kg / m2

wing area: 6 m2 

Aircraft with full span flaps with slotted inboard section:

Clmax = 1.3 + 1.06 = 2.36 

Same aircraft parameters:

74 hp required for 200 kts cruise

wing loading: 118 kg / m2

wing area: 5.6 m2

Aircraft with full span flaps with fowler inboard section:

Clmax = 1.3 + 1.362 = 2.66

70 hp required for 200 kts cruise

wing area: 5 m2

wing loading: 134 kg / m2

For the most extreme case theoretical savings over usual configuration:

Power = 86-70 = 16 hp (18%)

wing loading: 134-92 = 42 kg/m2 (31%)

wing area: 7.2 m2 - 5 m2 = 2.2 m2 (30%)

As readers will discover, I endeavour to visit Ardmore as often as I can. Its only a short ride from home so today the opportunity presented itself for a quick visit, netting me two new aircraft to photograph plus the chance for my son and his friend to sit a Grumman Cheetah! Woo hoo!

172RK ZK-MXP, recently imported joining ZK-CXP and ZK-TXP with GA Leasing


Vans RV6A ZK-PRV Registered 11Feb08 to an Ardmore address

Whilst North Shore airfield hosted a helicopter championship event, just next down the road next to the Albany Mega Centre shopping complete local EMT helcopters were on display including BK117 ZK-HLN and AS355 ZK-HDG, along with a Skywork machine, Eurocopter 350B3 ZK-HUU.

Notable was Helilink/Airwork AS355 Twin Squirrel ZK-HDG (Police 2) recently off a major maintenance visit at the operator's Ardmore facility now featuring a new colour scheme. Wayne Grant photos.

Karoliina model 1 concept iteration 1

200 kts with Rotax 914

Specs:
2 places: side by by side staggered seating (co-pilot a bit behind pilot)
Configuration: Pusher with Y-tail.
Engine: Rotax 914 115 hp (100 hp continuous), Propeller: Woodcomp SR3000
Body: 60% laminar flow body.
Body laminarity target: 100% laminar flow with suction.
Landing gear: Trigear, retractable nosegear, Steve Wright noselift. Main gear connected to wing spars at 90 degrees angle.
Wing configuration: Conventional, midwing position
Wing loading: 82 kg/m^2 (16.8 lbs/sqft)
Airfoil: NASA NLF(1)414F.
Flap config: Single slotted flaps with external hinges
AR = 10
L/Dmax = 19.8 at 115 kts
L (wing chord) = 0.8 m
wing area = 8 m^2
wing span = 8 m
Re min (stall) = 1829224
Re cruise = 4217074
Re max cruise = 5586254
empty weight = 366 kg
gross weight = 666 kg
fuel capacity = 140 liters
max cruise speed = 200 kts 370 km/h at 7000 feet
stall speed = 50 kts 92 km/h
approach speed = ~70 kts 130 km/h
drag coefficient target = < 0.016 (total drag). Lower is better. With 100% laminar flow body, a much lower drag coefficient might be possible, this figure is conservative.

Finally spotted outside the Oceania hanger was Greenpeace's Hughes 500D ZK-HOQ. From memory, the machine used to wear titles on the tailboom but if so they've been removed.

Cessna 172 N5266J, first noted as such at Ardmore on 09Mar, now sports ZK-JFI however has not yet been placed on the register.

It is important to point out the fact that being familiar with the decision-making process does not ensure the good judgment to be a safe pilot. The ability to make effective decisions as pilot in command depends on a number of factors. Some circumstances, such as the time available to make a decision may be beyond a pilot's control. However, one can learn to recognize those factors that can be managed, and learn skills to improve decision-making ability and judgment.

PILOT SELF-ASSESSMENT
The pilot in command of an airplane is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that airplane. To effectively exercise that responsibility and make effective decisions regarding the outcome of a flight, a pilot should be aware of personal limitations. Performance during a flight is affected by many factors, such as health, recency of experience, knowledge, skill level, and attitude.

Exercising good judgment begins prior to taking the controls of an airplane. Often, pilots thoroughly check their airplane to determine airworthiness, yet do not evaluate their own fitness for flight. Just as a checklist is used when preflighting an airplane, a personal checklist based on such factors as experience, currency, and comfort level can help determine if a pilot is prepared for a particular flight. Specifying when refresher training should be accomplished and designating weather minimums that may be higher than those listed in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 are elements that may be included on a personal checklist.

In addition to a review of personal limitations, use the I'M SAFE Checklist to further evaluate fitness for flight.

RECOGNIZING HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
Being fit to fly depends on more than just a pilot's physical condition and recency of experience. For example, attitude will affect the quality of decisions. Attitude can be defined as a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a given manner. Studies have identified five hazardous attitudes that can interfere with the ability to make sound decisions and exercise authority properly.

Hazardous attitudes can lead to poor decision making and actions that involve unnecessary risk. The pilot must examine decisions carefully to ensure that the choices have not been influenced by hazardous attitudes and be familiar with positive alternatives to counteract the hazardous attitudes. These substitute attitudes are referred to as antidotes. During a flight operation, it is important to be able to recognize a hazardous attitude, correctly label the thought, and then recall its antidote.

STRESS MANAGEMENT
Everyone is stressed to some degree almost all the time. A certain amount of stress is good since it keeps a person alert and prevents complacency. However, effects of stress are cumulative and, if not coped with adequately, they eventually add up to an intolerable burden. Performance generally increases with the onset of stress, peaks, and then begins to fall off rapidly as stress levels exceed a person's ability to cope.

The ability to make effective decisions during flight can be impaired by stress. Factors, referred to as stressors, can increase a pilot's risk of error in the cockpit.

There are several techniques to help manage the accumulation of life stresses and prevent stress overload. For example, including relaxation time in a busy schedule and maintaining a program of physical fitness can help reduce stress levels. Learning to manage time more effectively can help avoid heavy pressures imposed by getting behind schedule and not meeting deadlines.

Take a self-assessment to determine capabilities and limitations and then set realistic goals. In addition, avoiding stressful situations and encounters can help to cope with stress.

Examining National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) reports and other accident research can help assess risk more effectively. For example, the accident rate during night VFR decreases by nearly 50 percent once a pilot obtains 100 hours, and continues to decrease until the 1,000-hour level. The data suggest that for the first 500 hours, pilots flying VFR at night might want to establish higher personal limitations than are required by the regulations and, if applicable, apply instrument flying skills in this environment.

Studies also indicate the types of flight activities that are likely to result in the most serious accidents. The majority of fatal general aviation accidents fall under the categories of takeoff/initial climb, maneuvering flight, approaches, and weather. Delving deeper into accident statistics can provide some important details that can help in understanding the risks involved with specific flying situations. For example, maneuvering flight is one of the largest single producers of fatal accidents. In the approach phase, fatal accidents often happen at night or in IFR conditions. Takeoff/initial climb accidents frequently are due to the pilot's lack of awareness of the effects of density altitude on airplane performance or other improper takeoff planning resulting in loss of control during, or shortly after takeoff. The majority of weather-related accidents occur after attempted VFR flight into IFR conditions.

AIRFIELD SIGNAGE
A properly designed and standardized taxiway guidance sign system is an essential component
of a surface movement guidance control system. This is necessary for the safe and efficient
operation of an airport.
The sign should include the following:
* Provide the ability to easily determine the designation or name of any taxiway on which the
aircraft is located.
* Readily identify routes toward a desired destination.
* Indicate mandatory holding positions.
* Identify boundaries for approach areas, ILS critical areas, and runway safety areas/obstacle
free zones (OFZ).
There are six (6) types of signs installed on airfields: mandatory instruction signs, location signs,
direction signs, destination signs, information signs and runway distance remaining signs. This
section is a review of AC 150/5340-18C (Standards For Airport Sign Systems). This Advisory
Circular contains the FAA standards for the location and installation of signs on airport runways
and taxiways.
MANDATORY INSTRUCTION SIGNS
Mandatory instruction signs have a red background with a white inscription.
They are used are used to denote:
1. An entrance to a runway or critical area and;
2. Areas where an aircraft is prohibited from entering.
RUNWAY HOLDING POSITION SIGNS
This sign is located at the holding position on taxiways that intersect a runway, or on runways that
intersect other runways. The inscription on the sign contains the designation of the intersecting
runway. The runway numbers on the sign are arranged to correspond to the respective runway
threshold. For example, the sign below "15-33" indicates that the threshold for Runway 15 is
to the left and the threshold for Runway 33 is to the right.

RUNWAY APPROACH AREA HOLDING POSITION SIGN
At some airports, it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway short of the approach or departure area of a runway so that the aircraft does not interfere with the operations on that runway. In these situations, a sign with the designation of the approach end of the runway followed by a dash and letters "APCH" should be located on the taxiway pavement at the runway approach area.


ILS CRITICAL AREA/PRECISION OBSTACLE FREE ZONE HOLDING POSITION SIGN
When an Instrument Landing System is being used, it is sometimes necessary to hold an aircraft
or vehicle on a taxiway at a location other than the normal holding position location for the runway.
In these situations the holding position sign for these operations will have the inscription "ILS"
and be located adjacent to the holding position marking on the taxiway.

NO ENTRY SIGN
This sign is located in areas where one-way aircraft traffic exist, or where an aircraft may mistake a roadway or other non-movement area as a taxiway.

LOCATION SIGNS
Location signs are used to identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is located.
Other location signs provide a visual cue to pilots to assist them in determining when they have
exited an area.
TAXIWAY LOCATION SIGN
This sign has a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border. The
inscription is the designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These
signs are installed along taxiways, either by themselves or in conjunction with
direction signs.

RUNWAY LOCATION SIGNS
This sign has a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border.
The inscription is the designation of the runway on which the aircraft is located.
These signs are intended to complement the information available to pilots
through their magnetic compass. Typically, they are installed where the
proximity of two or more runways to one another could cause pilots to be confused as to which
runway they are on.

RUNWAY BOUNDARY SIGN
This sign has a yellow background with a black inscription with a graphic
depicting the pavement holding position marking. This sign faces the
runway and is visible to the pilot exiting the runway. This is intended to
provide pilots with a visual cue, which they can use as a guide in determining when they are "clear of the runway".

ILS CRITICAL AREA BOUNDARY SIGN
This sign has a yellow background with a black inscription with a graphic
depicting the ILS pavement holding position marking. This sign is located
adjacent to the ILS holding position marking on the pavement and can be
seen by pilots leaving the critical area. This sign is another visual cue for
determining when pilots are "clear of the ILS critical area".

RUNWAY DISTANCE REMAINING SIGN
These signs have a black background with a white numerical inscription and may be
installed along one or both side(s) of the runway. The number indicates the distance
(in thousands of feet) of landing surface remaining. The last sign will be located at
least 950 feet from the runway end.

DIRECTIONAL SIGNS
Directional signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. The inscription identifies the
designation of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of an intersection that a pilot would normally be expected to turn onto or hold short of. An arrow indicating the direction of the turn
accompanies each designation.

DESTINATION SIGNS
Destination signs also have a yellow background with a black inscription indicating a destination
on the airport. These signs always have an arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to that
destination. These signs should be located prior to the intersection if a turn is involved.
Destination signs contain information for: runways, taxiways, aprons, terminals, military areas,
cargo areas, general aviation, etc.

During each flight, decisions must be made regarding events involving interactions between the four risk elements—the pilot in command, the airplane, the environment, and the operation. The decision-making process involves an evaluation of each of these risk elements to achieve an accurate perception of the flight situation.

One of the most important decisions that a pilot in command must make is the go/no-go decision. Evaluating each of these risk elements can help in deciding whether a flight should be conducted or continued.

Below is a review of the four risk elements and how they affect decision making regarding the following situations.

Pilot—A pilot must continually make decisions about competency, condition of health, mental and emotional state, level of fatigue, and many other variables. For example, a pilot may be called early in the morning to make a long flight. If a pilot has had only a few hours of sleep and is concerned that the congestion being experienced could be the onset of a cold, it would be prudent to consider if the flight could be accomplished safely.

A pilot had only 4 hours of sleep the night before. The boss then asked the pilot to fly to a meeting in a city 750 miles away. The reported weather was marginal and not expected to improve. After assessing fitness as a pilot, it was decided that it would not be wise to make the flight. The boss was initially unhappy, but later convinced by the pilot that the risks involved were unacceptable.

Airplane—A pilot will frequently base decisions on the evaluations of the airplane, such as performance, equipment, or airworthiness.

During a preflight, a pilot noticed a small amount of oil dripping from the bottom of the cowling. Although the quantity of oil seemed insignificant at the time, the pilot decided to delay the takeoff and have a mechanic check the source of the oil. The pilot's good judgment was confirmed when the mechanic found that one of the oil cooler hose fittings was loose.

Environment—This encompasses many elements not pilot or airplane related. It can include such factors as weather, air traffic control, navaids, terrain, takeoff and landing areas, and surrounding obstacles. Weather is one element that can change drastically over time and distance.

A pilot was landing a small airplane just after a heavy jet had departed a parallel runway. The pilot assumed that wake turbulence would not be a problem since landings had been performed under similar circumstances. Due to a combination of prevailing winds and wake turbulence from the heavy jet drifting across the landing runway, the airplane made a hard landing. The pilot made an error when assessing the flight environment.

Operation—The interaction between the pilot, airplane, and the environment is greatly influenced by the purpose of each flight operation. The pilot must evaluate the three previous areas to decide on the desirability of undertaking or continuing the flight as planned. It is worth asking why the flight is being made, how critical is it to maintain the schedule, and is the trip worth the risks?

On a ferry flight to deliver an airplane from the factory, in marginal weather conditions, the pilot calculated the groundspeed and determined that the airplane would arrive at the destination with only 10 minutes of fuel remaining. The pilot was determined to keep on schedule by trying to "stretch" the fuel supply instead of landing to refuel. After landing with low fuel state, the pilot realized that this could have easily resulted in an emergency landing in deteriorating weather conditions. This was a chance that was not worth taking to keep the planned schedule.

Bits and bobs at Ardmore this morning.



R22 ZK-HJR/3 registered to Heliflite Pacific

Privately owned R44 ZK-IRL

Skywork's AS355 Twin Squirrel ZK-HZZ/5

North Shore based Provost Mk1 ZK-JOT

Recently registered Tecnam P2002 Sierra ZK-SRG. It, along with Furio ZK-LLG were noted
crossing Cook Strait from Paraparaumu heading south beyond Cape Campbell.

Although a decision may be reached and a course of action implemented, the decision-making process is not complete. It is important to think ahead and determine how the decision could affect other phases of the flight.

As the flight progresses, the pilot must continue to evaluate the outcome of the decision to ensure that it is producing the desired result.

To implement the decision, the pilot determines the necessary course changes and calculates a new estimated time of arrival, as well as contacts the nearest flight service station to amend the flight plan and check weather conditions at the fuel stop. Proceeding to the airport, continue to monitor the groundspeed, fuel status, and the weather conditions to ensure that no additional steps need to be taken to guarantee the safety of the flight.

The decision-making process normally consists of several steps before choosing a course of action. To help remember the elements of the decision-making process, a six-step model has been developed using the acronym "DECIDE."

Detect the fact that a change has occurred.
Estimate the need to counter or react to the change.
Choose a desirable outcome for the success of the flight.
Identify actions, which could successfully control the change.
Do the necessary action to adapt to the change.
Evaluate the effect of the action.

AERONAUTICAL DECISION MAKING (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

ATTITUDE is a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a given manner that can, nevertheless, be changed or modified through training as sort of a mental shortcut to decision making.

ATTITUDE MANAGEMENT is the ability to recognize hazardous attitudes in oneself and the willingness to modify them as necessary through the application of an appropriate antidote thought.

HEADWORK is required to accomplish a conscious, rational thought process when making decisions. Good decision making involves risk identification and assessment, information processing, and problem solving.

JUDGMENT is the mental process of recognizing and analyzing all pertinent information in a particular situation, a rational evaluation of alternative actions in response to it, and a timely decision on which action to take.

PERSONALITY is the embodiment of personal traits and characteristics of an individual that are set at a very early age and extremely resistant to change.

POOR JUDGMENT CHAIN is a series of mistakes that may lead to an accident or incident. Two basic principles generally associated with the creation of a poor judgment chain are: (1) One bad decision often leads to another; and (2) as a string of bad decisions grows, it reduces the number of subsequent alternatives for continued safe flight. ADM is intended to break the poor judgment chain before it can cause an accident or incident.

RISK ELEMENTS IN ADM take into consideration the four fundamental risk elements: the pilot, the aircraft, the environment, and the type of operation that comprise any given aviation situation.

RISK MANAGEMENT is the part of the decision making process that relies on situational awareness, problem recognition, and good judgment to reduce risks associated with each flight.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, and after the flight.

SKILLS and PROCEDURES are the procedural, psychomotor, and perceptual skills used to control a specific aircraft or its systems. They are the airmanship abilities that are gained through conventional training, are perfected, and become almost automatic through experience.

STRESS MANAGEMENT is the personal analysis of the kinds of stress experienced while flying, the application of appropriate stress assessment tools, and other coping mechanisms.

CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) is the application of team management concepts in the flight deck environment. It was initially known as cockpit resource management, but as CRM programs evolved to include cabin crews, maintenance personnel, and others, the phrase crew resource management was adopted. This includes single pilots, as in most general aviation aircraft. Pilots of small aircraft, as well as crews of larger aircraft, must make effective use of all available resources; human resources, hardware, and information. A current definition includes all groups routinely working with the cockpit crew who are involved in decisions required to operate a flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited to: pilots, dispatchers, cabin crewmembers, maintenance personnel, and air traffic controllers. CRM is one way of addressing the challenge of optimizing the human/machine interface and accompanying interpersonal activities.

GENERAL
All taxiway markings are colored yellow, have centerline markings, and runway holding position
markings whenever they intersect a runway. Taxiway edge markings are present whenever thereis a need to separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not intended for aircraft use or todelineate the edge of the taxiway. Taxiways may also have shoulder markings and holding
position markings for Instrument Landing System critical areas, and taxiway/ taxiway intersectionmarkings.

TAXIWAY CENTERLINE MARKING
The taxiway centerline is a single continuous yellow line that provides a visual cue to permit
taxiing along a designated path.

TAXIWAY EDGE MARKINGS
Taxiway edge markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway. They are primarily used when the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement. The markings are six inches wide, and set six inches apart from each other.

a. Continuous Markings These consist of a continuous double yellow line
that are used to define the taxiway edge from the shoulder or some other
abutting paved surface not intended for use by aircraft.

b. Dashed Markings These markings are used when there is an operational
need to define the edge of a taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface where
the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended for use by aircraft,
e.g., a hold pad or an apron. Each double dash marking is placed every
fifteen feet measures six inches wide by fifteen feet long, with a separation of six inches between
the double dashes.

TAXIWAY SHOULDER MARKINGS
Taxiways, holding pads, and aprons are sometimes provided with paved shoulders to prevent jet
blast and water erosion. Although shoulders may have the appearance of full strength pavement,
they are not intended for use by aircraft. Usually taxiway edge markings will define the area not
intended for use by aircraft. Where conditions exist such as islands or taxiway curves that may
cause confusion as to which side of the edge stripe is or use by aircraft, taxiway shoulder markings may be used to indicate that the pavement is unusable Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow.

SURFACE PAINTED TAXIWAY DIRECTION SIGNS
Surface painted taxiway direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription, and are provided when it is not possible to provide taxiway direction signs at intersections, or when it is necessary to supplement such signs. These markings are located adjacent to the centerline with signs indicating turns to the left being on the left side of the taxiway centerline and signs indicating turns to the right being on the right side of the centerline.

SURFACE PAINTED LOCATION SIGNS
Surface painted location signs have a black background with a yellow inscription. When necessary, these markings are used to supplement location signs located along the side of the taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the designation of the taxiway where the aircraft is located. These markings are located on the right side of the centerline.

RUNWAY HOLDING POSITION MARKING
For runways these markings indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop. They consist of four
yellow lines (two solid and two dashed), spaced six inches apart and extending across the width
of the taxiway or runway. The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold. There are three (3) locations where runway holding position markings are encountered.
1. Runway holding position markings on taxiways that intersect runways.
2. Runway holding position markings on runways that intersect other runways when used for
Simultaneous Operations on Intersecting Runways (SOIR) or Land and Hold Short
Operations (LAHSO).
3. Taxiways located in runway approach areas.

SURFACE PAINTED HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS
Surface painted holding position marking supplement the signs located
at the holding position markings. This could be used where the width of
the holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200ft.

ILS CRITICAL AREA/Precision Obstacle Free Zone HOLDING POSITION PAVEMENT
MARKINGS
An area on a taxiway where during instrument conditions, an aircraft may interfere with the signals for the Instrument Landing System (ILS). Vehicles and Aircraft are
required, during instrument conditions, to remain behind the ILS Critical Area/Precision Obstacle Free Zone.

MARKING COLOR
All runway markings are white except for runway intersection hold short markings, taxiway lead in lines that extend onto the runway, taxiway centerlines that lead off the runway, and runway
shoulder markings (chevrons); if present.

RUNWAY DESIGNATOR
Runway numbers and letters are determined from the approach direction. The runway numbers
nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of the runway, measured clockwise from magnetic north.

RUNWAY CENTERLINE MARKING
The runway centerline identifies the center of the runway and provides alignment guidance during takeoff and landings. The centerline consists of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps.

RUNWAY AIMING POINT MARKING
The aiming point marking serves as a visual aiming point for a landing aircraft. These two
rectangular markings consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of the runway centerline and approximately 1,000 feet from the landing threshold.

RUNWAY TOUCHDOWN ZONE MARKERS
The Touchdown Zone markings identify the TDZ for landing operations. TDZ markings are coded to provide distance information in 500 feet increments. These markings consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway centerline.

RUNWAY SIDE STRIPE MARKING
Runway side stripes delineate the edges of the runway. They provide a visual contrast between
runway and abutting terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of continuous white stripes located
on each side of the runway.

RUNWAY SHOULDER MARKINGS
Runway shoulder stripes may be used to supplement runway side stripes in identifying pavement areas contiguous to the runway sides that are not intended for use by aircraft. Runway shoulder markings are yellow.

RUNWAY THRESHOLD MARKINGS
Runway threshold markings come in two configurations. They either consist of eight longitudinal
stripes of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline, or the number of stripes related to the runway width.

CHEVRONS
These markings are used to show pavement areas aligned with the runway that is unusable for
landing, takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons are yellow.

An understanding of the decision-making process provides a pilot with a foundation for developing ADM skills. Some situations, such as engine failures, require a pilot to respond immediately using established procedures with little time for detailed analysis. Traditionally, pilots have been well trained to react to emergencies, but are not as well prepared to make decisions requiring a more reflective response. Typically during a flight, there is time to examine any changes that occur, gather information, and assess risk before reaching a decision. The steps leading to this conclusion constitute the decision-making process.

DEFINING THE PROBLEM
Problem definition is the first step in the decision-making process. Defining the problem begins with
recognizing that a change has occurred or that an expected change did not occur. A problem is perceived first by the senses, then is distinguished through insight and experience. These same abilities, as well as an objective analysis of all available information, are used to determine the exact nature and severity of the problem.

One critical error that can be made during the decision-making process is incorrectly defining the problem. For example, a low oil pressure reading could indicate that the engine is about to fail and an emergency landing should be planned, or it could mean that the oil pressure sensor has failed. The actions to be taken in each of these circumstances would be significantly different. Fixating on a problem that does not exist can divert attention from important tasks. The pilot's failure to maintain an awareness of the circumstances regarding the flight now becomes the problem. This is why once an initial assumption is made regarding the problem, other sources must be used to verify that the conclusion is correct.

While on a cross-country flight, a pilot discovered that fuel consumption was significantly higher than predicted during flight planning. By noticing this discrepancy, change has been recognized. Based on insight, cross-country flying experience, and knowledge of airplane systems, the pilot considers the possibility that there might be enough fuel to reach the destination. Factors that may increase the fuel burn rate could include environmental factors, such as higher-than-expected headwinds and lower-than-expected groundspeed. To determine the severity of the problem, recalculate the fuel consumption and reassess fuel requirements.

CHOOSING A COURSE OF ACTION
After the problem has been identified, the pilot must evaluate the need to react to it and determine the actions that may be taken to resolve the situation in the time available. The expected outcome of each possible action should be considered and the risks assessed before deciding on a response to the situation.

The pilot determines there is insufficient fuel to reach the destination, and considers other options, such as turning around and landing at a nearby airport that has been passed, diverting off course, or landing prior to the destination at an airport on the route. The expected outcome of each possible action must be considered along with an assessment of the risks involved. After studying the aeronautical chart, the pilot concludes that there is an airport that has fueling services within the remaining fuel range along the route. The time expended for the extra fuel stop is a worthwhile investment to ensure a safe completion of the flight

The airlines developed some of the first training programs that focused on improving aeronautical decision making. Human factors-related accidents motivated the airline industry to implement crew resource management (CRM) training for flight crews. The focus of CRM -crew resource management- programs is the effective use of all available resources; human resources, hardware, and information. Human resources include all groups routinely working with the cockpit crew (or pilot) who are involved in decisions that are required to operate a flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited to: dispatchers, cabin crewmembers, maintenance personnel, and air traffic controllers. Although the crew resource management -CRM- concept originated as airlines developed ways of facilitating crew cooperation to improve decision making in the cockpit, CRM -crew resource management- principles, such as workload management, situational awareness, communication, the leadership role of the captain, and crewmember coordination have direct application to the general aviation cockpit. This also includes single pilot operations since pilots of small airplanes, as well as crews of larger airplanes, must make effective use of all available resources—human resources, hardware, and information. AC 60-22, Aeronautical Decision-Making, provides background references, definitions, and other pertinent information about ADM - Aeronautical Decision Making- training in the general aviation environment.

Aeronautical Decision Making

Noted at Bridge Pa recently was this project.

Looks like a Cessna 188 airframe.

Any comments please as to the aim of the exercise ?

As Wayne Grant journeyed north 15Mar he visited Hamilton and at Aeromotive was recently completed Pacific Aerospace 750XL ZK-JDQ/2 c/n 139 in a parachute ship configuration. This is the second use of ZK-JDQ, this first was applied to an Air Freight NZ Convair 580 from March 1994 until December 1996.

Wayne Grant photo

Wayne Grant visited Taupo 15Mar and snapped Cresco's ZK-JOF and ZK-SDT (ex ZK-JOH) keeping busy on a fine morning.

Captured at its Fielding base earlier this week is Rural's Air Tractor 402B ZK-RMW, nee VH-FLD. The aircraft was delivered to Fielding on 14Dec07 arriving from Lord Howe Island and Palmerston North.

Wayne Grant photo

Aeronautical decision making (ADM) is a systematic approach to the mental process used by airplane pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances. The importance of learning effective ADM skills cannot be overemphasized. While progress is continually being made in the advancement of pilot training methods, airplane equipment and systems, and services for pilots, accidents still occur. Despite all the changes in technology to improve flight safety, one factor remains the same.the human factor. It is estimated that approximately 75 percent of all aviation accidents are human factors related.

Historically, the term "pilot error" has been used to describe the causes of these accidents. Pilot error means that an action or decision made by the pilot was the cause, or a contributing factor that led to the accident.

This definition also includes the pilot's failure to make a decision or take action. From a broader perspective, the phrase "human factors related" more aptly describes these accidents since it is usually not a single decision that leads to an accident, but a chain of events triggered by a number of factors.
The poor judgment chain, sometimes referred to as the "error chain," is a term used to describe this concept of contributing factors in a human factors-related accident.

Breaking one link in the chain normally is all that is necessary to change the outcome of the sequence of events. The following is an example illustrating the poor judgment chain.

A private pilot with around 350 hours was ferrying an airplane cross-country to a new owner. Due to time constraints, the pilot skipped dinner the night before and had no breakfast on the morning of the flight. The pilot planned to have lunch around noon at a fuel stop. A descent was begun from 9,500 feet, about 20 miles from the chosen fuel stop, due to haze and unfamiliarity with the area. When the airplane arrived at pattern altitude, the pilot could not find the airport. The pilot then circled north of the town, then back over the town, then flew to the west, then turned back to the east. The pilot decided to check for airport information in the Airport/Facility Directory, which was on the rear seat and not readily available.

Power had not been increased since the descent to pattern altitude, and the pilot had been holding back pressure on the yoke. While attempting to retrieve the Airport/Facility Directory, a loud "bang" was heard. Looking up, the pilot discovered the airplane was only about 200 feet above ground level. Increasing power, the pilot climbed and located the airport. After landing, it was discovered a fiberglass antenna had been hit, which damaged the leading edge of the left wing.

By discussing the events that led to this accident, it can be understood how a series of judgmental errors contributed to the final outcome of this flight. For example, one of the first elements that affected the pilot's flight was fatigue. The pilot understood that fatigue and hunger could affect the ability to fly safely, but let the desire to stay on schedule override the concern for a safe flight. Next, the rush to get airborne led the pilot to skip or postpone necessary aspects of preflight planning. Research before takeoff, with a quick review before descent, could have ensured a clear mental picture of the location of the airport in relation to the town. Copying relevant information from flight guides and other information sources is part of careful preflight planning. Studying the aeronautical charts and checking the Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) beforehand would have alerted the pilot to towers, terrain, and other obstructions in the vicinity of the airport.

Even without proper planning before the flight, good cockpit resource management and organization would have had the flight guide and any other necessary information near at hand, perhaps with the relevant pages flagged. Approaching the airport environment and flying around the area at traffic pattern altitude in hazy conditions could have interfered with other air traffic, and the potential for a midair collision is obvious.

In all circumstances, the pilot's first duty is to fly the airplane. Clearly that would include adjusting the power, setting the trim, and keeping track of altitude. This pilot was extremely fortunate—the outcome could easily have been fatal.

On numerous occasions during the flight, the pilot could have made effective decisions that would have broken the chain of error and prevented this accident. Making sound decisions is the key to preventing accidents.

Traditional pilot training has emphasized flying skills, knowledge of the airplane, and familiarity with regulations. ADM training focuses on the decision-making process and the factors that affect a pilot's ability to make effective choices.

IF we see these guys its too late to do anything about SMS!





As we all know the FAA is considering requiring us as airport operators to implement a safety management system (SMS). This is spelled out in advisory circular 150/5200-37. They give the definition of a SMS as the “The application of a systematic, proactive, and well-defined safety program (as is inherent in a SMS) allows an organization producing a product or service to strike a realistic and efficient balance between safety and production” (AC 150/5200-37). Now what that means without all the lawyer talk is a basic change in how we approach each day. It starts with a top down approach and do we as airport operators encourage our subordinates to follow a safety culture? Do we provide our workers the resources to enhance the safety of the environment that each of us knows and loves? Do we review small non incidents with a critical but non judgmental eye? Do we reward initiative to help develop a safety conscious work environment? It’s not enough to just say we require our subordinates to start thinking about safety. You have to begin with the training and development of the basic skills and questions that the SMS brings to the table.


SMS is broken down into four elements. They are

• Safety Policy and Objectives
• Safety Risk Management
• Safety Assurance
• Safety Promotion.


Now how we each approach these four portions of the SMS is where the discussion begins?

An organization is always based on its policy and objectives, so it is only natural that the first portion of a SMS is the Safety Policy and Objectives. When developing a safety policy you need to remember that this is the base line you as an operator use to develop your SMS. The policy should include the commitment of top level managers to promote and develop the SMS. It should also include the idea that safety is an on going process that should be implemented in every task that a person takes on. Another important step is to make sure that your employees understand with this statement that they will not face retribution for reporting safety issues. If an employee does not feel comfortable coming to you then how are we ever going to be able to get a SMS off the ground. The last two steps contain a commitment of resources and desire to put safety as a priority. I know that many airports are strapped for cash as it is but it’s important to realize that a SMS will never get off the drawing board if the money isn’t there.

Safety Risk Management is the heart of the SMS system. Basically it is the systematic approach to identifying safety risks and ways to mitigate these risks. At larger airports this is accomplished by having a safety risk manager whose full time job is to review each procedure for possible safety concerns. Now at smaller airports a senior employee may take on this role with the help of a safety management team. Each person would take time to do unscheduled safety audits of random processes of airport operations. Now besides the audits a SMS should have a way of reporting safety concerns without punitive action. This sometimes is the hardest thing for a manager to accomplish. When someone reports something the natural human reaction is to punish that person for causing this safety issue. This is not a good management practice; we all remember being the person on the wrong end of a mistake being yelled at doesn’t effectively attack the problem of mitigating a safety concern.

The last portion of a SMS is Safety promotion. This comes back to proper training, reward for mitigating safety concerns, and the development of the safety culture. It is basically the process in which you develop the basic skills that help mitigating safety concerns and maintaining a safe environment.

The FAA will eventually require us all to have a SMS in place as part of our 139 certificate. It will take an effort on our parts to make this system work. You have to start at the beginning and build up just like everything.

drew@139airportsafety.com

There are many different types of visual illusions that commonly occur at night. Anticipating and staying aware of them is usually the best way to avoid them.

AUTOKINESIS
Autokinesis is caused by staring at a single point of light against a dark background for more than a few seconds. After a few moments, the light appears to move on its own. To prevent this illusion, focus the eyes on objects at varying distances and avoid fixating on one target. Be sure to maintain a normal scan pattern.

FALSE HORIZON
A false horizon can occur when the natural horizon is obscured or not readily apparent. It can be generated by confusing bright stars and city lights. It can also occur while flying toward the shore of an ocean or a large lake. Because of the relative darkness of the water, the lights along the shoreline can be mistaken for stars in the sky.

NIGHT LANDING ILLUSIONS
Landing illusions occur in many forms. Above featureless terrain at night, there is a natural tendency to fly a lower-than-normal approach. Elements that cause any type of visual obscuration, such as rain, haze, or a dark runway environment also can cause low approaches. Bright lights, steep surrounding terrain, and a wide runway can produce the illusion of being too low, with a tendency to fly a higher-than-normal approach.

Often a set of regularly spaced lights along a road or highway can appear to be runway lights. Pilots have even mistaken the lights on moving trains as runway or approach lights. Bright runway or approach lighting systems can create the illusion that the airplane is closer to the runway, especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain.

It is estimated that once fully adapted to darkness, the rods are 10,000 times more sensitive to light than the cones, making them the primary receptors for night vision. Since the cones are concentrated near the fovea, the rods are also responsible for much of the peripheral vision. The concentration of cones in the fovea can make a night blind spot in the center of the field of vision. To see an object clearly at night, the pilot must expose the rods to the image. This can be done by looking 5° to 10° off center of the object to be seen. This can be tried in a dim light in a darkened room. When looking directly at the light, it dims or disappears altogether. When looking slightly off center, it becomes clearer and brighter.

When looking directly at an object, the image is focused mainly on the fovea, where detail is best seen. At night, the ability to see an object in the center of the visual field is reduced as the cones lose much of their visual acuity and the rods become more sensitive. Looking off center can help compensate for this night blind spot. Along with the loss of sharpness and color at night, depth perception and judgment of size may be lost.

While the cones adapt rapidly to changes in light intensities, the rods take much longer. Walking from bright sunlight into a dark movie theater is an example of this dark adaptation period experience. The rods can take approximately 30 minutes to fully adapt to the dark. A bright light, however, can completely destroy night adaptation, leaving night vision severely compromised while the adaptation process is repeated.

Several things can be done to keep the eyes adapted to the dark. The first is obvious: avoid bright lights before and during the flight. For 30 minutes before a night flight, avoid any bright light sources, such as headlights, landing lights, strobe lights, or flashlights. If a bright light is encountered, close one eye to keep it light sensitive. This allows the use of that eye to see again once the light is gone. Red cockpit lighting also helps preserve night vision, but red light severely distorts some colors and completely washes out the color red. This makes reading an aeronautical chart difficult. A dim white light or a carefully directed flashlight can enhance night reading ability.

While flying at night, keep the instrument panel and interior lights turned up no higher than necessary. This helps to see outside references more easily. If the eyes become blurry, blinking more frequently often helps.

Diet and general physical health have an impact on how well a pilot can see in the dark. Deficiencies in vitamins A and C have been shown to reduce night acuity. Other factors, such as carbon monoxide poisoning, smoking, alcohol, certain drugs, and a lack of oxygen also can greatly decrease night vision.

TB10 ZK-MBR at Ardmore 13Mar08 featuring a swordfish. The aircraft was imported to NZ in 1994 for use my Massey Aviation and was sold to a MR RG De Bray of Kaikohe in 2002.

Of all the senses, vision is the most important for safe flight. Most of the things perceived while flying are visual or heavily supplemented by vision. As remarkable and vital as it is, vision is subject to some limitations, such as illusions and blind spots. The more a pilot understands about the eyes and how they function, the easier it is to use vision effectively and compensate for potential problems.

The functions of eye much like a camera. Its structure includes an aperture, a lens, a mechanism for focusing, and a surface for registering images. Light enters through the cornea at the front of the eyeball, travels through the lens and falls on the retina. The retina contains light sensitive cells that convert light energy into electrical impulses that travel through nerves to the brain. The brain interprets the electrical signals to form images. There are two kinds of light sensitive cells in the eyes: rods and cones.

The cones are responsible for all color vision, from appreciating a glorious sunset to discerning the subtle shades in a fine painting. Cones are present throughout the retina, but are concentrated toward the center of the field of vision at the back of the retina. There is a small pit called the fovea where almost all the light sensing cells are cones. This is the area where most "looking" occurs (the center of the visual field where detail, color sensitivity, and resolution are highest).

While the cones and their associated nerves are well suited to detecting fine detail and color in high light levels, the rods are better able to detect movement and provide vision in dim light. The rods are unable to discern color but are very sensitive in low light levels. The trouble with rods is that a large amount of light overwhelms them, and they take a long time to "reset" and adapt to the dark again. There are so many cones in the fovea that the very center of the visual field hardly has any rods at all. So in low light, the middle of the visual field isn't very sensitive, but farther from the fovea, the rods are more numerous and provide the major portion of night vision.

The area where the optic nerve enters the eyeball has no rods or cones, leaving a blind spot in the field of vision. Normally, each eye compensates for the other's blind spot.

Another problem associated with flying at night, in instrument meteorological conditions and/or reduced visibility is empty-field myopia, or induced near sightedness. With nothing to focus on, the eyes automatically focus on a point just slightly ahead of the airplane. Searching out and focusing on distant light sources, no matter how dim, helps prevent the onset of empty-field myopia.

Scuba diving subjects the body to increased pressure, which allows more nitrogen to dissolve in body tissues and fluids. The reduction of atmospheric pressure that accompanies flying can produce physical problems for scuba divers. Reducing the pressure too quickly allows small bubbles of nitrogen to form inside the body as the gas comes out of solution. These bubbles can cause a painful and potentially incapacitating condition called "the bends." (An example is dissolved gas forming bubbles as pressure decreases by slowly opening a transparent bottle of soda.) Scuba training emphasizes how to prevent the bends when rising to the surface, but increased nitrogen concentrations can remain in tissue fluids for several hours after a diver leaves the water. The bends can be experienced from as low as 8,000 feet MSL, with increasing severity as altitude increases. As noted in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), the minimum recommended time between scuba diving on non-decompression stop dives and flying is 12 hours, while the minimum time recommended between decompression stop diving and flying is 24 hours.

Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both prescribed and over-the-counter medications, as well as by the medical conditions for which they are taken. Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough-suppressants have primary effects that may impair judgment, memory, alertness, coordination, vision, and the ability to make calculations. Others, such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, and agents to control diarrhea and motion sickness have side effects that may impair the same critical functions. Any medication that depresses the nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer, or antihistamine can make a pilot more susceptible to hypoxia.

Pain-killers can be grouped into two broad categories: analgesics and anesthetics. Analgesics are drugs that reduce pain, while anesthetics are drugs that deaden pain or cause loss of consciousness. Over-the-counter analgesics, such as acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin), acetaminophen (Tylenol), and ibuprofen (Advil) have few side effects when taken in the correct dosage. Although some people are allergic to certain analgesics or may suffer from stomach irritation, flying usually is not restricted when taking these drugs. However, flying is almost always precluded while using prescription analgesics, such as Darvon, Percodan, Demerol, and codeine since these drugs may cause side effects such as mental confusion, dizziness, headaches, nausea, and vision problems.

Anesthetic drugs are commonly used for dental and surgical procedures. Most local anesthetics used for minor dental and outpatient procedures wear off within a relatively short period of time. The anesthetic itself may not limit flying so much as the actual procedure and subsequent pain. Stimulants are drugs that excite the central nervous system and produce an increase in alertness and activity. Amphetamines, caffeine, and nicotine are all forms of stimulants. Common uses of these drugs include appetite suppression, fatigue reduction, and mood elevation. Some of these drugs may cause a stimulant reaction, even though this reaction is not their primary function. In some cases, stimulants can produce anxiety and mood swings, both of which are dangerous when flying.  Depressants are drugs that reduce the body's functioning in many areas. These drugs lower blood pressure, reduce mental processing, and slow motor and reaction responses. There are several types of drugs that can cause a depressing effect on the body, including tranquilizers, motion sickness medication, some types of stomach medication, decongestants, and antihistamines. The most common depressant is alcohol.

Some drugs, which can neither be classified as stimulants nor depressants, have adverse effects on flying.

For example, some forms of antibiotics can produce dangerous side effects, such as balance disorders, hearing loss, nausea, and vomiting. While many antibiotics are safe for use while flying, the infection requiring the antibiotic may prohibit flying. In addition, unless specifically prescribed by a physician, do not take more than one drug at a time, and never mix drugs with alcohol, because the effects are often unpredictable.

The dangers of illegal drugs also are well documented. Certain illegal drugs can have a hallucinatory effect that occurs days or weeks after the drug is taken. Obviously, these drugs have no place in the aviation community.

The Code of Federal Regulations prohibits pilots from performing crewmember duties while using any medication that affects the faculties in any way contrary to safety. The safest rule is not to fly as a crewmember while taking any medication, unless approved to do so by the FAA. If there is any doubt regarding the effects of any medication, consult an aviation medical examiner before flying.

Alcohol impairs the efficiency of the human mechanism. Studies have positively proven that drinking and performance deterioration is closely linked. Pilots must make hundreds of decisions, some of them time-critical, during the course of a flight. The safe outcome of any flight depends on the ability to make the correct decisions and take the appropriate actions during routine occurrences, as well as abnormal situations.

The influence of alcohol drastically reduces the chances of completing a flight without incident. Even in small amounts, alcohol can impair judgment, decrease sense of responsibility, affect coordination, constrict visual field, diminish memory, reduce reasoning power, and lower attention span. As little as one ounce of alcohol can decrease the speed and strength of muscular reflexes, lessen the efficiency of eye movements while reading, and increase the frequency at which errors are committed. Impairments in vision and hearing occur at alcohol blood levels as low as .01 percent. The alcohol consumed in beer and mixed drinks is ethyl alcohol, a central nervous system depressant. From a medical point of view, it acts on the body much like a general anesthetic. The "dose" is generally much lower and more slowly consumed in the case of alcohol, but the basic effects on the system are similar. Alcohol is easily and quickly absorbed by the digestive tract. The bloodstream absorbs about 80 to 90 percent of the alcohol in a drink within 30 minutes on an empty stomach. The body requires about 3 hours to rid itself of all the alcohol contained in one mixed drink or one beer.

With a hangover, a pilot is still under the influence of alcohol. Although a pilot may think that he or she is functioning normally, the impairment of motor and mental responses still remains. Considerable amounts of alcohol can remain in the body for over 16 hours, so pilots should be cautious about flying too soon after drinking.

Altitude multiplies the effects of alcohol on the brain. When combined with altitude, the alcohol from two drinks may have the same effect as three or four drinks. Alcohol interferes with the brain's ability to utilize oxygen, producing a form of histotoxic hypoxia. The effects are rapid because alcohol passes so quickly into the bloodstream. In addition, the brain is a highly vascular organ that is immediately sensitive to changes in the blood's composition. For a pilot, the lower oxygen availability at altitude, along with the lower capability of the brain to use what oxygen is there, adds up to a deadly combination.

Intoxication is determined by the amount of alcohol in the bloodstream. This is usually measured as a percentage by weight in the blood. 14 CFR part 91 requires that blood alcohol level be less than .04 percent and that 8 hours pass between drinking alcohol and piloting an airplane. A pilot with a blood alcohol level of .04 percent or greater after 8 hours cannot fly until the blood alcohol falls below that amount. Even though blood alcohol may be well below .04 percent, a pilot cannot fly sooner than 8 hours after drinking alcohol.

Although the regulations are quite specific, it is a good idea to be more conservative than the regulations.

Dehydration is the term given to a critical loss of water from the body. The first noticeable effect of dehydration is fatigue, which in turn makes top physical and mental performance difficult, if not impossible. As a pilot, flying for long periods in hot summer temperatures or at high altitudes increases the susceptibility of dehydration since the dry air at altitude tends to increase the rate of water loss from the body. If this fluid is not replaced, fatigue progresses to dizziness, weakness, nausea, tingling of hands and feet, abdominal cramps, and extreme thirst.

Heatstroke is a condition caused by any inability of the body to control its temperature. Onset of this condition may be recognized by the symptoms of dehydration, but also has been known to be recognizable only by complete collapse.

To prevent these symptoms, it is recommended that an ample supply of water be carried and used at frequent intervals on any long flight, whether thirsty or not. If the airplane has a canopy or roof window, wearing light-colored, porous clothing and a hat will help provide protection from the sun. Keeping the cockpit well ventilated aids in dissipating excess heat.

Each certificate holder must inspect the physical facilities of each airport tenant fueling agent at least once every 3 consecutive months for compliance with paragraph (b) of this section and maintain a record of that inspection for at least 12 consecutive calendar months.

Are you the Inspector or the Inspected? Which ever it maybe your safety and the safety of those utilizing your airfield is the goal. The Inspection of your vehicles and fueling facilities much be thorough. Any discrepancy must be dealt with Immediately. The regulation states the fueling vehicles must be Inspected at least once every 3 consecutive months, does that mean you can't Inspected the vehicles every month? No It doesn't. You can Inspect them as much as you see necessary.

Some descrepencies you may find: Interlock Brakes Inoperative, Emergency Shutoffs Inoperative, Placards Faded, Vehicle Leaking Fuel. That names only a few of the discrepancies you may find. The Quarterly Fueling Vehicle Inspection Download is a geat tool to assist you with your Inspections. Download it here at 139 Airport Operations Safety Blog.
Quarterly Fueling Vehicle Inspection

Don't Just Go Through The Motions!!

Fatigue is frequently associated with pilot error. Some of the effects of fatigue include degradation of attention and concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability to communicate. These factors can seriously influence the ability to make effective decisions. Physical fatigue can result from sleep loss, exercise, or physical work. Factors such as stress and prolonged performance of cognitive work can result in mental fatigue.

Like stress, fatigue also falls into two broad categories: acute and chronic. Acute fatigue is short term and is a normal occurrence in everyday living. It is the kind of tiredness people feel after a period of strenuous effort, excitement, or lack of sleep. Rest after exertion and 8 hours of sound sleep ordinarily cures this condition.

A special type of acute fatigue is skill fatigue. This type of fatigue has two main effects on performance:

• Timing disruption. Appearing to perform a task as usual, but the timing of each component is slightly off. This makes the pattern of the operation less smooth, because the pilot performs each component as though it were separate, instead of part of an integrated activity.
• Disruption of the perceptual field. Concentrating attention upon movements or objects in the center of vision and neglecting those in the periphery. This may be accompanied by loss of accuracy and smoothness in control movements.

Acute fatigue has many causes, but the following are among the most important for the pilot:
• Mild hypoxia (oxygen deficiency)
• Physical stress
• Psychological stress
• Depletion of physical energy resulting from psychological stress

Sustained psychological stress accelerates the glandular secretions that prepare the body for quick reactions during an emergency. These secretions make the circulatory and respiratory systems work harder, and the liver releases energy to provide the extra fuel needed for brain and muscle work. When this reserve energy supply is depleted, the body lapses into generalized and severe fatigue. Acute fatigue can be prevented by a proper diet and adequate rest and sleep. A well-balanced diet prevents the body from having to consume its own tissues as an energy source. Adequate rest maintains the body's store of vital energy.

Chronic fatigue, extending over a long period of time, usually has psychological roots, although an underlying disease is sometimes responsible. Continuous high stress levels, for example, can produce chronic fatigue. Chronic fatigue is not relieved by proper diet and adequate rest and sleep, and usually requires treatment by a physician.

An individual may experience this condition in the form of weakness, tiredness, palpitations of the heart, breathlessness, headaches, or irritability. Sometimes chronic fatigue even creates stomach or intestinal problems and generalized aches and pains throughout the body. When the condition becomes serious enough, it can lead to emotional illness.

If suffering from acute fatigue, stay on the ground. If fatigue occurs in the cockpit, no amount of training or experience can overcome the detrimental effects. Getting adequate rest is the only way to prevent fatigue from occurring. Avoid flying without a full night's rest, after working excessive hours, or after an especially exhausting or stressful day. Pilots who suspect they are suffering from chronic fatigue should consult a physician.