New publication to hit the stands in early February.

The first edition of the new "NZ AeroNews" edited by Graeme Porter will hit the stands from February 1st 2008.

It will be in a similar but updated format to NZ Aviation News which Graeme has been involved with for the last 15 years.

Due to irreconsilable differences with the other two shareholders Graeme has gone his seperate way.

All the current contributors and a very high percentage of the advertisers have moved to the new publication.

Is this the end of NZ Aviation News ?

Noted at Christchurch 24.12.07 MD500E ZK-INM which was until recently ZK-HOT with Alpine Helicopters in Wanaka.

Strong Northeasterly winds restricted the lighter side of aviation around Christchurch this weekend.

However I did catch the Dyn Aero MCR01 Club ZK-WIK c/n 342 as it arrived at Rangiora direct from Parakai in under four hours.

After a quick refuel and toilet stop it headed off to Balclutha.

Thought I would throw in an occasional question.

Question being :-

What is it ?

And once you have that:-

What is its registration ?

I can now confirm that the glider which crashed whilst competing in the GP gliding Competition was the Schleicher prototype ASG29 D-2929 c/n 29001 with pilot Herbert Weiss.

Photo from the Alexander Schleicher web page.

On behalf of this site I extend our sympathy to Herbert's family.

News has just broken that an overseas glider pilot was killed today participing in the GP Gliding event out of Omarama.
The glider failed to complete the course and the wreck was found late this evening, I believe near the top of Lake Wanaka.
Only one glider failed to feature on the days score board, so I think it a fair guess that it was this particular machine. An ASG29.

I've just discovered that if you click on the subject heading, then the comments come up on the same screen.

Easier than clicking on the "Comment" at the bottom of the post and getting another slow loading overlay.

I'm slowly learning !

I noted the olde DC-3 overflying the Garden City at about 1530 this afternoon. Looked like "Amy".
It certainly had two engines and both were circulating.

Just finally managed to get into the FAA web site and:-

N135KM "is not assigned/reserved"

N153KM is listed as Jetstream 4101 c/n 41053 with a cert date of 12-01-2007 (that far back) to Northstar Aviation LLC of Boca Raton, Florida.

Well it's certainly marked up as N135KM, as can be seen. They could of course have made mistake in painting it on. Thanks for enlightening me on the rationale.

Can somebody confirm that JSN has in fact become N135KM ?

The others seem to have used the last two numbers of their c/ns as the last two in their "N" number.

In other words, I am expecting it to become N153KM !

Helicopters (NZ) latest flagship, AW139 ZK-HNZ, flew away from Ardmore this morning following its reconstruction with Hawker Pacific. The helicopter departed to the west and appeared on radar to continue south so presume it has been delivered to New Plymouth.

On departure from Ardmore, Colin Hunter photo

The last two former Origin Pacific Jetstream 41's have gone onto the US Civil Register. Between 12th and 14th December, the former ZK-JSO became N156KM, and ZK-JSN became N135KM. The former looks ready to go, while N135KM probably has some time here yet.

Just to see what happens when I upload some more photographs! The R44 is ZK-HFF at North Shore on 12th, and the Saratoga N515SC was there at the same time.

Trust the computers are still intact after that!

Robinson R44 II ZK-HGZ S/N:11984 seen outside Skysales Christchurch facility 19.12.07 has the distinction of being the 8000th Robinson helicopter produced. HGZ will be delivered to it's new owner by weeks end.

Just a trial really - to see whether I can master this new technology! Wandered around parts north of Auckland last week. At North Shore on 12th, assembly of new R44 HFF was almost finished - all-over dark blue. HeliNorth tell me it will be partially repainted on delivery (the previous HFF, an R22, still exists more or less intact outside their hangar at Whangarei). They are operating R44's HPS and IMH at present. Being assembled at Whangarei Airport was R44 II HGM for Salt Air (a 2-3 year old ex-US machine N442RB with 120 hours up). It will join B206 HFE. At Kerikeri Airport, recent import Cessna 172 TRS was noted in company with similar machine WAX. TRS's predecessor TAR also seemed to be frequently coupled to WAX! At Heliops base, R44's HXA and HXC were outside with a 'new' R22B in the hangar for Croydon Thompson.

Photo attached as test only to check system.

Picture taken at Wanaka 16-08-2006.

A brief visit to Rangiora found the recently imported Solar Wings Pegasus XL-R ZK-JSJ/2. It still also wears its UK registration of G-MTIV. Its c/n is SW-WA-1195.

I note that the time expired Zlin has gone from its hangar and the damaged fuselage that was decaying outside has also moved on. Gone south says a local. (Taieri ?).

There is a heap of damaged parts still lurking in the corner.

And yes it really does fly. The Ragwing Pietenpol Exp ZK-RWA of a Wayne Wilson on final.

Piper PA46 Malibu N9099Z still plies the airways in its US marks.

The old Auster J4 ZK-AXC c/n 2080 owned by Byron Kelly has taken the Zlins place in the Hangar. Looks rather dashing with its Lycoming engine and clear door panels and big boots.

The Hughes 369D ZK-HXZ/2 c/n 117-0233D of Amuri Helicopters appears to be in a new scheme

A quick drive past Christchurch found Raven 11 ZK-HKJ/3, c/n 10757, had just landed outside its hangar on the western side of the field. The owner William Johnstone's previously operated the Cessna A185 F ZK-WHJ, c/n 18504304.

Purely by chance this very Skywagon was parked across two fences on the western grass wearing its Glacier Skydive Air Services Ltd scheme. If memory serves me right, this is a meat bomber out of Fox Glacier.

Hi Dave,

Great to see ta Blog dedicated to the lighter ZK- stuff, and nice to see Skysales featured! The R44 HGI/DJ also carried HLD marks first but was changed the day of CofA.
EC-120 IFR flew yesterday and will have CofA on Tuesday, we will be flying ITT & HGZ Thu/Fri
Attached some shots from a work trip upto Gisborne last Friday. The Alouette is Ex ZK-HYA.



Best Regards
Glen

(Skysales)

Skysales Christchurch on 11-12-2007.

One 40ft container spews out three large crates as above.

The white one is Raven 11 c/n 11983 and is now ZK-ITT.

Green one, another Raven 11 is c/n 11984 and ZK-HGZ/4.

In the rear crate is the black with silver striped Raven 11 c/n 11990 to be ZK-HTF/5.

Same helicopter, different days.
This Robinson R44 Raven 11 c/n 11972 was registered as ZK-HGI/3 on 06-12-2007 as seen above at Skysales Christchurch on 07-12-07.
It was also cancelled on the 7th and was re-registered as ZK-HDJ/4 as seen below photographed on the 14th.

A pilot must be able to accurately and rapidly solve any problems that involve the shift, addition, or removal of weight. For example, the pilot may load the aircraft within the allowable takeoff weight limit, then find a CG limit has been exceeded. The most satisfactory solution to this problem is to shift baggage, passengers, or both. The pilot should be able to determine the minimum load shift needed to make the aircraft safe for flight. Pilots should be able to determine if shifting a load to a new location will correct an out-of-limit condition. There are some standardized calculations that can help make these determinations.

WEIGHT SHIFTING
When weight is shifted from one location to another, the total weight of the aircraft is unchanged. The total moments, however, do change in relation and proportion to the direction and distance the weight is moved.

When weight is moved forward, the total moments decrease; when weight is moved aft, total moments increase. The moment change is proportional to the amount of weight moved. Since many aircraft have forward and aft baggage compartments, weight may be shifted from one to the other to change the CG. If starting with a known aircraft weight, CG, and total moments, calculate the new CG (after the weight shift) by dividing the new total moments by the total aircraft weight.

To determine the new total moments, find out how many moments are gained or lost when the weight is shifted. Assume that 100 pounds has been shifted from station 30 to station 150. This movement increases the total moments of the aircraft by 12,000 lb-in.

Moment when at station 150 = 100 lb x 150 in = 15,000 lb-in
Moment when at station 30 = 100 lb x 30 in = 3,000 lb-in
Moment change = 12,000 lb-in

By adding the moment change to the original moment (or subtracting if the weight has been moved forward instead of aft), the new total moments are obtained. Then determine the new CG by dividing the new moments by the total weight:

Total moments = 616,000 + 12,000 = 628,000

The shift has caused the CG to shift to station 78.5

A simpler solution may be obtained by using a computer or calculator and a proportional formula. This can be done because the CG will shift a distance that is proportional to the distance the weight is shifted.

EXAMPLE
Weight Shifted = CG (change of CG)
Total Weight Distance weight is shifted 100 = CG 8,000
120  CG = 1.5 in

The change of CG is added to (or subtracted from when appropriate) the original CG to determine the new CG: 77 + 1.5 = 78.5 inches aft of datum The shifting weight proportion formula can also be used to determine how much weight must be shifted to achieve a particular shift of the CG. The following problem illustrates a solution of this type.

EXAMPLE
Given:
Aircraft Total Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,800 lb
CG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Station 81.5
Aft CG Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80.5

Determine how much cargo must be shifted from the aft cargo compartment at station 150 to the forward cargo compartment at station 30 to move the CG to exactly the aft limit.

Solution:
Weight to be Shifted = �CG
Total Weight Distance weight is shifted
Weight to be Shifted = 1.0 in
7,800 120 in
Weight to be Shifted = 65 lb

Another method for determining the loaded weight and CG is the use of graphs provided by the manufacturers.

To simplify calculations, 100, 1,000, or 10,000 may sometimes divide the moment. The following is an example of the graph method.

Given:
Front Seat Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 lb
Rear Seat Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 lb
Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 gal
Baggage Area 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 lb

The same steps should be followed as in the computational method except the graphs provided will calculate the moments and allow the pilot to determine if the airplane is loaded within limits. To determine the moment using the loading graph, find the weight and draw a line straight across until it intercepts the item for which the moment is to be calculated. Then draws a line straight down to determine the moment. (The red line on the loading graph represents the moment for the pilot and front passenger. All other moments were determined in the same way.) Once this has been done for each item, total the weight and moments and draw a line for both weight and moment on the center-of-gravity envelope graph. If the lines intersect within the envelope, the airplane is loaded within limits. In this sample-loading problem, the airplane is loaded within limits.

On Tuesday the 11th I found the Avid Mark IV ZK-JHW c/n 1434D tucked away in the hangar.

This is a recent arrival for Grant Porter and is ex Kaitaia Aero Club.

Interestingly this Avid whilst under the ownership of Paul Havill flew out to the Chatham Islands accompanied by the Sky Arrow 480T ZK-EBR/2 back on 09-04 2004.

Parked out on the grass was the Cessna T182RD ZK-MAS/2 c/n 182RG0061 of Morpheus Aviation from up Hamilton way.

Others aircraft noted were the 150hp Cessna A150L ZK-CZZ/2, c/n 1500447 out for its pre summer wash down.

Piper PA31-325 Navajo ZK-NOW/2 c/n 31-7912032. Its ownership changed to Brick Securities Ltd with an Auckland address on 22-11-2007.

One aircraft missing (not the DC-3 - which is in WN minus an engine) but the Piper PA60 Aerostar 600 belonging to Clive Ridge. This was ex VH-UYU and has aspirations of becoming ZK-TSA. This arrived in May 2001 and has been parked in the rear corner of the hangar pretty much ever since. It has been in bare metal - all paint removed and the engines inhibited for yonks.

Devon ZK-XNZ flew in about a week ago and appears to be on a maintenance check (cowls off). It was last noted at Ashburton in the rear of the hangar minus props.

A quick visit to Wigram on Monday the 10th of December found Super Air FU24A-954 c/n 278 just starting up to depart back north. This dual control Fletcher has been at Gore with Phoenix Aviation pilot training.

If I have got the system sorted & this message appears ok, then I will add more pics during the weekend.

Spied at Ardmore today, 13Dec07, where two recent additions to the ZK register. Peter Vela of NZ Bloodstock has added Eurocopter EC130 ZK-HPV (4322) to his stable bringing the NZ population of these machines to one dozen. This is the third helicopter to wear this personalised registration and joins Eurocopter AS350B3 ZK-IPV. ZK-HPV/3 was placed on the register just three days ago.



Lifting for circuits, Mike Condon photo

On the lighter side of helicopters was Ardmore Helicopters latest addition, Schweizer 269C-1 ZK-IMX (0316). It was parked outside the Oceania facility. It was only registered two days ago.

Mike Condon photo

There are various methods for determining the loaded weight and center of gravity of an aircraft. There is the computation method, as well as methods that utilize graphs and tables provided by the aircraft manufacturer.

COMPUTATIONAL METHOD
The computational method involves the application of basic math functions. The following is an example of the computational method.

Given:
Maximum Gross Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3400 lb
Center-of-Gravity Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-86 in
Front Seat Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 lb
Rear Seat Occupants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 lb
Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 gal
Baggage Area 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 lb

To determine the loaded weight and CG, follow these steps.
Step 1—List the weight of the airplane, occupants, fuel, and baggage. Remember that fuel weighs 6 pounds per gallon.
Step 2—Enter the moment for each item listed. Remember "weight x arm = moment."
Step 3—Total the weight and moments.
Step 4—To determine the CG, divides the total moment by the total weight.

NOTE: The weight and balance records for a particular airplane will provide the empty weight and moment as well as the information on the arm distance.

The total loaded weight of 3,320 pounds does not exceed the maximum gross weight of 3,400 pounds and the CG of 84.8 is within the 78-86 inch range; therefore, the airplane is loaded within limits.

The airplane's weight and balance restrictions should be closely followed. The loading conditions and empty weight of a particular airplane may differ from that found in the AFM/POH because modifications or equipment changes may have been made. Sample loading problems in the AFM/POH are intended for guidance only; therefore, each airplane must be treated separately. Although an airplane is certified for a specified maximum gross takeoff weight, it will not safely take off with this load under all conditions.

Conditions that affect takeoff and climb performance such as high elevations, high temperatures, and high humidity (high-density altitudes) may require a reduction in weight before flight is attempted. Other factors to consider prior to takeoff are runway length, runway surface, runway slope, surface wind, and the presence of obstacles. These factors may require a reduction in weight prior to flight.

Some airplanes are designed so that it is difficult to load them in a manner that will place the CG out of limits. These are usually small airplanes with the seats, fuel, and baggage areas located near the CG limit. These airplanes, however, can be overloaded in weight.

Other airplanes can be loaded in such a manner that they will be out of CG limits even though the useful load has not been exceeded.

Because of the effects of an out-of-balance or overweight condition, a pilot should always be sure that an airplane is properly loaded.

It might be advantageous at this point to review and discuss some of the basic principles of how weight and balance can be determined. The following method of computation can be applied to any object or vehicle where weight and balance information is essential; but to fulfill the purpose of this handbook, it is directed primarily toward the airplane.

By determining the weight of the empty airplane and adding the weight of everything loaded on the airplane, a total weight can be determined. This is quite simple; but to distribute this weight in such a manner that the entire mass of the loaded airplane is balanced around a point (CG), which must be located within specified limits, presents a greater problem, particularly if the basic principles of weight and balance are not understood.

The point where the airplane will balance can be determined by locating the center of gravity, which is as stated in the definition of terms, the imaginary point where all the weight is concentrated. To provide the necessary balance between longitudinal stability and elevator control, the center of gravity is usually located slightly forward of the center of lift. This loading condition causes a nose-down tendency in flight, which is desirable during flight at a high angle of attack and slow speeds.

A safe zone within which the balance point (CG) must fall is called the CG range. The extremities of the range are called the forward CG limits and aft CG limits.

These limits are usually specified in inches, along the longitudinal axis of the airplane, measured from a datum reference. The datum is an arbitrary point, established by airplane designers, which may vary in location between different airplanes.

The distance from the datum to any component part of the airplane, or any object loaded on the airplane, is called the arm. When the object or component is located aft of the datum, it is measured in positive inches; if located forward of the datum, it is measured as negative inches, or minus inches. The location of the object or part is often referred to as the station. If the distance from the datum (arm) multiplies the weight of any object or component, the product is the moment. The moment is the measurement of the gravitational force that causes a tendency of the weight to rotate about a point or axis and is expressed in pound-inches.

To illustrate, assume a weight of 50 pounds is placed on the board at a station or point 100 inches from the datum. The downward force of the weight can be determined by multiplying 50 pounds by 100 inches, which produces a moment of 5,000 lb-in.

To establish a balance, a total of 5,000 lb-in must be applied to the other end of the board. Any combination of weight and distance which, when multiplied, produces a 5,000 lb-in moment will balance the board.

Weight and balance control should be a matter of concern to all pilots. The pilot has control over loading and fuel management (the two variable factors that can change both total weight and CG location) of a particular airplane.

The airplane owner or operator should make certain that up-to-date information is available in the airplane for the pilot's use, and should ensure that appropriate entries are made in the airplane records when repairs or modifications have been accomplished. Weight changes must be accounted for and the proper notations made in weight and balance records. The equipment list must be updated, if appropriate. Without such information, the pilot has no foundation upon which to base the necessary calculations and decisions.

Before any flight, the pilot should determine the weight and balance condition of the airplane. Airplane manufacturers for the determination of loading conditions have devised simple and orderly procedures, based on sound principles. The pilot must use these procedures and exercise good judgment. In many modern airplanes, it is not possible to fill all seats, baggage compartments, and fuel tanks, and still remain within the approved weight and balance limits.

If the maximum passenger load is carried, the pilot must often reduce the fuel load or reduce the amount of baggage.

The pilot should be familiar with terms used in working the problems related to weight and balance. The following list of terms and their definitions is well standardized, and knowledge of these terms will aid the pilot to better understand weight and balance calculations of any airplane. Terms defined by the General Aviation Manufacturers Association as an industry standard are marked in the titles with GAMA.

• Arm (moment arm)—is the horizontal distance in inches from the reference datum line to the center of gravity of an item. The algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum, and minus (–) if measured forward of the datum.
• Basic empty weight (GAMA)—includes the standard empty weight plus optional and special equipment that has been installed.
• Center of gravity (CG)—is the point about which an airplane would balance if it were possible to suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the airplane, or the theoretical point at which the entire weight of the airplane is assumed to be concentrated. It may be expressed in inches from the reference datum, or in percent of mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).
• Center-of-gravity limits—is the specified forward and aft points within which the CG must be located during flight. These limits are indicated on pertinent airplane specifications.
• Center-of-gravity range—is the distance between the forward and aft CG limits indicated on pertinent airplane specifications.
• Datum (reference datum)—is an imaginary vertical plane or line from which all measurements of arm are taken. The manufacturer establishes the datum. Once the datum has been selected, all moment arms and the location of CG range are measured from this point.
• Delta—is a Greek letter expressed by the symbol �to indicate a change of values. As an example, �CG indicates a change (or movement) of the CG.
• Floor load limit—is the maximum weight the floor can sustain per square inch/foot as provided by the manufacturer.
• Fuel load—is the expendable part of the load of the airplane. It includes only usable fuel, not fuel required to fill the lines or that which remains trapped in the tank sumps.
• Licensed empty weight—is the empty weight that consists of the airframe, engine(s), unusable fuel, and undrainable oil plus standard and optional equipment as specified in the equipment list. Some manufacturers used this term prior to GAMA standardization.
• Maximum landing weight—is the greatest weight that an airplane normally is allowed to have at landing.
• Maximum ramp weight—is the total weight of a loaded aircraft, and includes all fuel. It is greater than the takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi and runup operations. Ramp weight may also be referred to as taxi weight.
• Maximum takeoff weight—is the maximum allowable weight for takeoff.
• Maximum weight—is the maximum authorized weight of the aircraft and all of its equipment as specified in the Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) for the aircraft.
• Maximum zero fuel weight (GAMA)—is the maximum weight, exclusive of usable fuel.
• Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC)—is the average distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing.
• Moment—is the product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm. Moments are expressed in pound-inches (lb-in). Total moment is the weight of the airplane multiplied by the distance between the datum and the CG.
• Moment index (or index)—is a moment divided by a constant such as 100, 1,000, or 10,000. The purpose of using a moment index is to simplify weight and balance computations of airplanes where heavy items and long arms result in large, unmanageable numbers.
• Payload (GAMA)—is the weight of occupants, cargo, and baggage.
• Standard empty weight (GAMA)—consists of the airframe, engines, and all items of operating equipment that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the airplane; including fixed ballast, hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and full engine oil.
• Standard weights—have been established for numerous items involved in weight and balance computations. These weights should not be used if actual weights are available. Some of the standard weights are:
  • Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 lb/US gal
  • Jet A, Jet A-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 lb/US gal
  • Jet B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 lb/US gal
  • Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 lb/US gal
  • Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.35 lb/US gal
    
    
  • Station—is a location in the airplane that is identified by a number designating its distance in inches from the datum. The datum is, therefore, identified as station zero. An item located at station +50 would have an arm of 50 inches.
  • Useful load—is the weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers, baggage, usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is the basic empty weight subtracted from the maximum allowable gross weight. This term applies to general aviation aircraft only.

NZ Civil Aircraft blog.

What a splendid idea !

I look forward to offering my observations and comments on a casual basis.

I also await with interest other NZ Civil Aircraft enthusiests sightings and offerings to this new blog.

FYI.
I am Christchurch based and prefer the lighter side of aviation, especially helicopters and gliders, although I follow the NZ civil register with considerable interest.


Regards
Blue Bus

Adverse balance conditions affect airplane flight characteristics in much the same manner as those mentioned for an excess weight condition. In addition, there are two essential airplane characteristics that may be seriously affected by improper balance; these are stability and control. Loading in a nose-heavy condition causes problems in controlling and raising the nose, especially during takeoff and landing. Loading in a tail-heavy condition has a most serious effect upon longitudinal stability, and can reduce the airplane's capability to recover from stalls and spins. Another undesirable characteristic produced from tail-heavy loading is that it produces very light control forces. This makes it easy for the pilot to inadvertently overstress the airplane.

The manufacturer establishes limits for the location of the airplane's center of gravity. These are the fore and aft limits beyond which the CG should not be located for flight. These limits are published for each airplane in the Type Certificate Data Sheet, or Aircraft Specification and the Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot's

Operating Handbook (AFM/POH). If, after loading, the CG is not within the allowable limits, it will be necessary to relocate some items within the airplane before flight is attempted.

The forward center-of-gravity limit is often established at a location that is determined by the landing characteristics of the airplane. During landing, which is one of the most critical phases of flight, exceeding the forward CG limit may result in excessive loads on the nosewheel; a tendency to nose over on tailwheeltype airplanes; decreased performance; higher stalling speeds; and higher control forces. In extreme cases, a CG location that is forward of the forward limit may result in nose heaviness to the extent that it may be difficult or impossible to flare for landing.

Manufacturers purposely place the forward CG limit as far rearward as possible to aid pilots in avoiding damage to the airplane when landing. In addition to decreased static and dynamic longitudinal stability, other undesirable effects caused by a CG location aft of the allowable range may include extreme control difficulty, violent stall characteristics, and very light stick forces that make it easy to overstress the airplane inadvertently.

A restricted forward center-of-gravity limit is also specified to assure that sufficient elevator deflection is available at minimum airspeed. When structural limitations or large stick forces do not limit the forward CG position, it is located at the position where full-up elevator is required to obtain a high angle of attack for landing.

The aft center-of-gravity limit is the most rearward position at which the CG can be located for the most critical maneuver or operation. As the CG moves aft, a less stable condition occurs, which decreases the ability of the airplane to right itself after maneuvering or turbulence.

For some airplanes the CG limits, both fore and aft, may be specified to vary as gross weight changes. They may also be changed for certain operations such as acrobatic flight, retraction of the landing gear, or the installation of special loads and devices that change the flight characteristics.

The actual location of the CG can be altered by many variable factors and is usually controlled by the pilot.

Placement of baggage and cargo items determines the CG location. The assignment of seats to passengers can also be used as a means of obtaining a favorable balance. If the airplane is tail-heavy, it is only logical to place heavy passengers in forward seats. Also, fuel burn can affect the CG based on the location of the fuel tanks.

Balance refers to the location of the center of gravity (CG) of an airplane, and is important to airplane stability and safety in flight. The center of gravity is a point at which an airplane would balance if it were suspended at that point.

The prime concern of airplane balancing is the fore and aft location of the CG along the longitudinal axis.

The center of gravity is not necessarily a fixed point; its location depends on the distribution of weight in the airplane. As variable load items are shifted or expended, there is a resultant shift in CG location. The pilot should realize that if the CG of an airplane is displaced too far forward on the longitudinal axis, a nose-heavy condition will result. Conversely, if the CG is displaced too far aft on the longitudinal axis, a tail-heavy condition will result. It is possible that an unfavorable location of the CG could produce such an unstable condition that the pilot could not control the airplane.

Location of the CG with reference to the lateral axis is also important. For each item of weight existing to the left of the fuselage centerline, there is an equal weight existing at a corresponding location on the right. This may be upset, however, by unbalanced lateral loading.

The position of the lateral CG is not computed, but the pilot must be aware that adverse effects will certainly arise as a result of a laterally unbalanced condition.

Lateral unbalance will occur if the fuel load is mismanaged by supplying the engine(s) unevenly from tanks on one side of the airplane. The pilot can compensate for the resulting wing-heavy condition by adjusting the aileron trim tab or by holding a constant aileron control pressure. However, these places the airplane controls in an out-of-streamline condition, increases drag, and results in decreased operating efficiency. Since lateral balance is relatively easy to control and longitudinal balance is more critical, further reference to balance in this handbook will mean longitudinal location of the center of gravity.

In any event, flying an airplane that is out of balance can produce increased pilot fatigue with obvious effects on the safety and efficiency of flight. The pilot's natural correction for longitudinal unbalance is a change of trim to remove the excessive control pressure.

Excessive trim, however, has the effect of not only reducing aerodynamic efficiency but also reducing primary control travel distance in the direction the trim is applied.

Altering the fuel load can change the weight of the airplane. Gasoline has considerable weight—6 pounds per gallon—30 gallons may weigh more than one passenger. But it must be remembered that if reducing fuel lowers weight, the range of the airplane is decreased. During flight, fuel burn is normally the only weight change that takes place. As fuel is used, the airplane becomes lighter and performance is improved.

Changes of fixed equipment have a major effect upon the weight of the airplane. An airplane can be overloaded by the installation of extra radios or instruments.

Repairs or modifications may also affect the weight of the airplane.

Hello, my name is Karoliina Salminen and the intention of this blog is to follow topics related to light aircraft design. I do have a dream and want to share it with you.

Any item aboard the airplane that increases the total weight is undesirable as far as performance is concerned.

Manufacturers attempt to make the airplane as light as possible without sacrificing strength or safety.

The pilot of an airplane should always be aware of the consequences of overloading. An overloaded airplane may not be able to leave the ground, or if it does become airborne, it may exhibit unexpected and unusually poor flight characteristics. If an airplane is not properly loaded, the initial indication of poor performance usually takes place during takeoff.

Excessive weight reduces the flight performance of an airplane in almost every respect. The most important performance deficiencies of the overloaded airplane are:

• Higher takeoff speed.
• Longer takeoff run.
• Reduced rate and angle of climb.
• Lower maximum altitude.
• Shorter range.
• Reduced cruising speed.
• Reduced maneuverability.
• Higher stalling speed.
• Higher approach and landing speed.
• Longer landing roll.
• Excessive weight on the nosewheel or tailwheel.

The pilot must be knowledgeable in the effect of weight on the performance of the particular airplane being flown. Preflight planning should include a check of performance charts to determine if the airplane's weight may contribute to hazardous flight operations.

Excessive weight in itself reduces the safety margins available to the pilot, and becomes even more hazardous when other performance-reducing factors are combined with overweight. The pilot must also consider the consequences of an overweight airplane if an emergency condition arises. If an engine fails on takeoff or airframe ice forms at low altitude, it is usually too late to reduce the airplane's weight to keep it in the air.

Compliance with the weight and balance limits of any airplane is critical to flight safety. Operating an airplane above the maximum weight limitation compromises the structural integrity of the airplane and adversely affects its performance. Operation with the center of gravity (CG) outside the approved limits may result in control difficulty.

WEIGHT CONTROL
Weight is the force with which gravity attracts a body toward the center of the earth. It is a product of the mass of a body and the acceleration acting on the body.

Weight is a major factor in airplane construction and operation, and demands respect from all pilots.

The force of gravity continually attempts to pull the airplane down toward earth. The force of lift is the only force that counteracts weight and sustains the airplane in flight. However, the airfoil design, angle of attack, airspeed, and air density limit the amount of lift produced by an airfoil. Therefore, to assure that the lift generated is sufficient to counteract weight, loading the airplane beyond the manufacturer's recommended weight must be avoided. If the weight is greater than the lift generated, the airplane may be incapable of flight.

The registered owner/operator of an aircraft is responsible for certain items such as:

• Having a current Airworthiness Certificate and a Certificate of Aircraft Registration in the aircraft.
• Maintaining the aircraft in an airworthy condition, including compliance with all applicable Airworthiness Directives.
• Assuring that maintenance is properly recorded.
• Keeping abreast of current regulations concerning the operation and maintenance of the aircraft.
• Notifying the FAA Civil Aviation Registry immediately of any change of permanent mailing
• address, or of the sale or export of the aircraft, or of the loss of the eligibility to register an aircraft. (Refer to 14 CFR part 47, section 47.41.)
• Having a current FCC radio station license if equipped with radios, including emergency locator transmitter (ELT), if operated outside of the United States.

AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES
A primary safety function of the FAA is to require correction of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other products of the same design. The unsafe condition may exist because of a design defect, maintenance, or other causes. 14 CFR part 39, Airworthiness Directives (ADs), defines the authority and responsibility of the Administrator for requiring the necessary corrective action. ADs are the means used to notify aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to specify the conditions under which the product may continue to be operated.
ADs may be divided into two categories:

1. those of an emergency nature requiring immediate compliance prior to further flight, and
2. those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance within a specified period of time.

Airworthiness Directives are regulatory and shall be complied with unless a specific exemption is granted.

It is the aircraft owner or operator's responsibility to ensure compliance with all pertinent ADs. This includes those ADs that require recurrent or continuing action. For example, an AD may require a repetitive inspection each 50 hours of operation, meaning the particular inspection shall be accomplished and recorded every 50 hours of time in service.

Owners/operators are reminded there is no provision to overfly the maximum hour requirement of an AD unless it is specifically written into the AD. To help determine if an AD applies to an amateur-built aircraft, contact the local FSDO.

14 CFR part 91, section 91.417 requires a record to be maintained that shows the current status of applicable ADs, including the method of compliance; the AD number and revision date, if recurring; the time and date when due again; the signature; kind of certificate; and certificate number of the repair station or mechanic who performed the work. For ready reference, many aircraft owners have a chronological listing of the pertinent ADs in the back of their aircraft, engine, and propeller maintenance records.

All Airworthiness Directives and the AD Biweekly are free on the Internet at www.airweb.faa.gov/rgl Paper copies of the Summary of Airworthiness Directives and the AD Biweekly may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents. The Summary contains all the valid ADs previously published and is divided into two areas. The small aircraft and rotorcraft books contain all ADs applicable to small aircraft (12,500 pounds or less maximum certificate takeoff weight) and ADs applicable to all helicopters. The large aircraft books contain all ADs applicable to large aircraft.

For further information on how to order ADs and the current price, contact:
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Delegation & Airworthiness Programs Branch, AIR-140
P.O. Box 26460
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
Telephone Number: (405) 954-4103
Fax: (405) 954-4104

A primary safety function of the FAA is to require correction of unsafe conditions found in an aircraft, aircraft engine, propeller, or appliance when such conditions exist and are likely to exist or develop in other products of the same design. The unsafe condition may exist because of a design defect, maintenance, or other causes. 14 CFR part 39, Airworthiness Directives (ADs), defines the authority and responsibility of the Administrator for requiring the necessary corrective action. ADs are the means used to notify aircraft owners and other interested persons of unsafe conditions and to specify the conditions under which the product may continue to be operated.
ADs may be divided into two categories:

1. those of an emergency nature requiring immediate compliance prior to further flight, and
2. those of a less urgent nature requiring compliance within a specified period of time.

Airworthiness Directives are regulatory and shall be complied with unless a specific exemption is granted.

It is the aircraft owner or operator's responsibility to ensure compliance with all pertinent ADs. This includes those ADs that require recurrent or continuing action. For example, an AD may require a repetitive inspection each 50 hours of operation, meaning the particular inspection shall be accomplished and recorded every 50 hours of time in service.

Owners/operators are reminded there is no provision to overfly the maximum hour requirement of an AD unless it is specifically written into the AD. To help determine if an AD applies to an amateur-built aircraft, contact the local FSDO.

14 CFR part 91, section 91.417 requires a record to be maintained that shows the current status of applicable ADs, including the method of compliance; the AD number and revision date, if recurring; the time and date when due again; the signature; kind of certificate; and certificate number of the repair station or mechanic who performed the work. For ready reference, many aircraft owners have a chronological listing of the pertinent ADs in the back of their aircraft, engine, and propeller maintenance records.

All Airworthiness Directives and the AD Biweekly are free on the Internet at www.airweb.faa.gov/rgl Paper copies of the Summary of Airworthiness Directives and the AD Biweekly may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents. The Summary contains all the valid ADs previously published and is divided into two areas. The small aircraft and rotorcraft books contain all ADs applicable to small aircraft (12,500 pounds or less maximum certificate takeoff weight) and ADs applicable to all helicopters. The large aircraft books contain all ADs applicable to large aircraft.

For further information on how to order ADs and the current price, contact:
U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Delegation & Airworthiness Programs Branch, AIR-140
P.O. Box 26460
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
Telephone Number: (405) 954-4103
Fax: (405) 954-4104

Airworthiness Certificate

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE

A special flight permit is a Special Airworthiness Certificate issued authorizing operation of an aircraft that does not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements but is safe for a specific flight. Before the permit is issued, an FAA inspector may personally inspect the aircraft, or require it to be inspected by an FAA certificate A&P mechanic or an appropriately certificate repair station, to determine its safety for the intended flight. The inspection shall be recorded in the aircraft records.

The special flight permit is issued to allow the aircraft to be flown to a base where repairs, alterations, or maintenance can be performed; for delivering or exporting the aircraft; or for evacuating an aircraft from an area of impending danger. A special flight permit may be issued to allow the operation of an overweight aircraft for flight beyond its normal range over water or land areas where adequate landing facilities or fuel is not available.

If a special flight permit is needed, assistance and the necessary forms may be obtained from the local FSDO or Designated Airworthiness Representative (DAR).

Preventive maintenance is considered to be simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts, not involving complex assembly operations. Certificate pilots, excluding student pilots, sport pilots, and recreational pilots, may perform preventive maintenance on any aircraft that is owned or operated by them provided that aircraft is not used in air carrier service. (Sport pilots operating light sport aircraft; refer to 14 CFR part 65 for maintenance privileges.) 14 CFR part 43, Appendix A, contains a list of the operations that are considered to be preventive maintenance.

Repairs and alterations are classified as either major or minor. 14 CFR part 43, Appendix A, describes the alterations and repairs considered major. Major repairs or alterations shall be approved for return to service on FAA Form 337, Major Repairs and Major Alterations, by an appropriately rated certificate repair station, an FAA certificate A&P mechanic holding an Inspection Authorization, or a representative of the Administrator.

Minor repairs and minor alterations may be approved for return to service with a proper entry in the maintenance records by an FAA certificate A&P mechanic or an appropriately certificate repair station.

For modifications of experimental aircraft, refer to the operating limitations issued to that aircraft.

Modifications in accordance with FAA Order 8130.2, Airworthiness Certification of Aircraft and Related Products, may require the notification of the issuing authority.

14 CFR part 91 places primary responsibility on the owner or operator for maintaining an aircraft in an airworthy condition. Certain inspections must be performed on the aircraft, and the owner must maintain the airworthiness of the aircraft during the time between required inspections by having any defects corrected.

14 CFR part 91, sub-part E, requires the inspection of all civil aircraft at specific intervals to determine the overall condition. The interval depends upon the type of operations in which the aircraft is engaged.

Some aircraft need to be inspected at least once each 12-calendar month, while inspection is required for others after each 100 hours of operation. In some instances, an aircraft may be inspected in accordance with an inspection system set up to provide for total inspection of the aircraft on the basis of calendar time, time in service, number of system operations, or any combination of these.

All inspections should follow the current manufacturer's maintenance manual, including the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness concerning inspection intervals, parts replacement, and life-limited items as applicable to the aircraft.

ANNUAL INSPECTION
Any reciprocating-engine powered or single-engine-turbojet/ turbo-propeller powered small aircraft (12,500 pounds and under) flown for business or pleasure and not flown for compensation or hire is required to be inspected at least annually. The inspection shall be performed by a certificate airframe and powerplant (A&P) mechanic who holds an Inspection Authorization (IA), by the manufacturer, or by a certificate and appropriately rated repair station. The aircraft may not be operated unless the annual inspection has been performed within the preceding 12-calendar months. A period of 12-calendar months extends from any day of a month to the last day of the same month the following year. An aircraft overdue for an annual inspection may be operated under a Special Flight Permit issued by the FAA for the purpose of flying the aircraft to a location where the annual inspection can be performed.

However, all applicable Airworthiness Directives that are due must be complied with.

100-HOUR INSPECTION
All aircraft under 12,500 pounds (except turbojet/turbo-propeller powered multi-engine airplanes and turbine-powered rotorcraft), used to carry passengers for hire, must have received a 100-hour inspection within the preceding 100 hours of time in service and have been approved for return to service. Additionally, an aircraft used for flight instruction for hire, when provided by the person giving the flight instruction, must also have received a 100-hour inspection. This inspection must be performed by a FAA certificate A&P mechanic, an appropriately rated FAA certificate repair station, or by the aircraft manufacturer. An annual inspection or an inspection for the issuance of an Airworthiness Certificate may be substituted for a required 100-hour inspection. The 100-hour limitation may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while en route to reach a place where the inspection can be done. The excess time used to reach a place where the inspection can be done must be included in computing the next 100 hours of time in service.

OTHER INSPECTION PROGRAMS
The annual and 100-hour inspection requirements do not apply to large (over 12,500 pounds) airplanes, turbojets, or turbo-propeller powered multiengine airplanes or to aircraft for which the owner complies with a progressive inspection program. Details of these requirements may be determined by reference to 14 CFR part 43, section 43.11 and part 91, subpart E, and by inquiring at a local FSDO.

ALTIMETER SYSTEM INSPECTION
14 CFR part 91, section 91.411 requires that the altimeter, encoding altimeter, and related system be tested and inspected in the preceding 24 months before operated in controlled airspace under instrument flight rules (IFR).

TRANSPONDER INSPECTION
14 CFR part 91, section 91.413 requires that before a transponder can be used under 14 CFR part 91, section 91.215(a), it shall be tested and inspected within the preceding 24 months.

PREFLIGHT INSPECTIONS
The preflight inspection is a thorough and systematic means by which a pilot determines if the aircraft is airworthy and in condition for safe operation. POHs and owner/information manuals contain a section devoted to a systematic method of performing a preflight inspection.

MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LISTS (MEL) AND OPERATIONS WITH INOPERATIVE EQUIPMENT
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) requires that all aircraft instruments and installed equipment are operative prior to each departure. When the FAA adopted the minimum equipment list (MEL) concept for 14 CFR part 91 operations, this allowed for the first time, operations with inoperative items determined to be nonessential for safe flight. At the same time, it allowed part 91 operators, without an MEL, to defer repairs on nonessential equipment within the guidelines of part 91.

There are two primary methods of deferring maintenance on small rotorcraft, non-turbine powered airplanes, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under part 91. They are the deferral provision of 14 CFR part 91, section 91.213(d) and an FAA-approved MEL.

The deferral provision of section 91.213(d) is widely used by most pilot/operators. Its popularity is due to simplicity and minimal paperwork. When inoperative equipment is found during preflight or prior to departure, the decision should be to cancel the flight, obtain maintenance prior to flight, or to defer the item or equipment.

Maintenance deferrals are not used for in-flight discrepancies.

The manufacturer's AFM/POH procedures are to be used in those situations. The discussion that follows assumes that the pilot wishes to defer maintenance that would ordinarily be required prior to flight.

Using the deferral provision of section 91.213(d), the pilot determines whether the inoperative equipment is required by type design, the CFRs, or ADs. If the inoperative item is not required, and the aircraft can be safely operated without it, the deferral may be made.

The inoperative item shall be deactivated or removed and an INOPERATIVE placard placed near the appropriate switch, control, or indicator. If deactivation or removal involves maintenance (removal always will), it must be accomplished by certificate maintenance personnel.

For example, if the position lights (installed equipment) were discovered to be inoperative prior to a daytime flight, the pilot would follow the requirements of section 91.213(d).

The deactivation may be a process as simple as the pilot positioning a circuit breaker to the OFF position, or as complex as rendering instruments or equipment totally inoperable. Complex maintenance tasks require a certificate and appropriately rated maintenance person to perform the deactivation. In all cases, the item or equipment must be placarded INOPERATIVE.

All small rotorcraft, non-turbine-powered airplanes, gliders, or lighter-than-air aircraft operated under part 91 are eligible to use the maintenance deferral provisions of section 91.213(d). However, once an operator requests an MEL, and a Letter of Authorization (LOA) is issued by the FAA, then the use of the MEL becomes mandatory for that aircraft. All maintenance deferrals must be accomplished in accordance with the terms and conditions of the MEL and the operator-generated procedures document.

The use of an MEL for an aircraft operated under part 91 also allows for the deferral of inoperative items or equipment. The primary guidance becomes the FAA approved MEL issued to that specific operator and N-numbered aircraft.

The FAA has developed master minimum equipment lists (MMELs) for aircraft in current use. Upon written request by an operator, the local FSDO may issue the appropriate make and model MMEL, along with an LOA, and the preamble. The operator then develops operations and maintenance (O&M) procedures from the MMEL. This MMEL with O&M procedures now becomes the operator's MEL. The MEL, LOA, preamble, and procedures document developed by the operator must be on board the aircraft when it is operated.

The FAA considers an approved MEL to be a supplemental type certificate (STC) issued to an aircraft by serial number and registration number. It therefore becomes the authority to operate that aircraft in a condition other than originally type certificate.

With an approved MEL, if the position lights were discovered inoperative prior to a daytime flight, the pilot would make an entry in the maintenance record or discrepancy record provided for that purpose. The item is then either repaired or deferred in accordance with the MEL. Upon confirming that daytime flight with inoperative position lights is acceptable in accordance with the provisions of the MEL, the pilot would leave the position lights switch OFF, open the circuit breaker (or whatever action is called for in the procedures document), and placard the position light switch as INOPERATIVE.

There are exceptions to the use of the MEL for deferral.

For example, should a component fail that is not listed in the MEL as deferrable (the tachometer, flaps, or stall warning device, for example), then repairs are required to be performed prior to departure. If maintenance or parts are not readily available at that location, a special flight permit can be obtained from the nearest FSDO.

This permit allows the aircraft to be flown to another location for maintenance. This allows an aircraft that may not currently meet applicable airworthiness requirements, but is capable of safe flight, to be operated under the restrictive special terms and conditions attached to the special flight permit.

Deferral of maintenance is not to be taken lightly, and due consideration should be given to the effect an inoperative component may have on the operation of an aircraft, particularly if other items are inoperative.

Further information regarding MELs and operations with inoperative equipment can be found in Advisory Circular (AC) 91-67, Minimum Equipment Requirements for General Aviation Operations under FAR Part 91.

Maintenance is defined as the preservation, inspection, overhaul, and repair of an aircraft, including the replacement of parts. A PROPERLY MAINTAINED AIRCRAFT IS A SAFE AIRCRAFT. In addition, regular and proper maintenance ensures that an aircraft meets an acceptable standard of airworthiness throughout its operational life.

Although maintenance requirements vary for different types of aircraft, experience shows that aircraft need some type of preventive maintenance every 25 hours of flying time or less, and minor maintenance at least every 100 hours. The kind of operation, climatic conditions, storage facilities, ages, and construction of the aircraft influences this. Manufacturers supply maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, and other service information that should be used in maintaining the aircraft.

CERTIFICATE OF AIRCRAFT REGISTRATION
Before an aircraft can be flown legally, it must be registered with the FAA Civil Aviation Registry. The Certificate of Aircraft Registration, which is issued to the owner as evidence of the registration, must be carried in the aircraft at all times.

The Certificate of Aircraft Registration cannot be used for operations when:

• The aircraft is registered under the laws of a foreign country.
• The aircraft's registration is canceled at the written request of the holder of the certificate.
• The aircraft is totally destroyed or scrapped.
• The ownership of the aircraft is transferred.
• The holder of the certificate loses United States citizenship.

For additional events, see 14 CFR section 47.41.

When one of the events listed in 14 CFR section 47.41 occurs, the previous owner must notify the FAA by filling in the back of the Certificate of Aircraft Registration, and mailing it to:
Federal Aviation Administration Civil Aviation Registry, AFS-750 P.O. Box 25504
Oklahoma City, OK 73125

A dealer's aircraft registration certificate is another form of registration certificate, but is valid only for required flight tests by the manufacturer or in flights that are necessary for the sale of the aircraft by the manufacturer or a dealer. The dealer must remove it when the aircraft is sold.

After compliance with 14 CFR section 47.31, the pink copy of the application for a Certificate of Aircraft Registration is authorization to operate an unregistered aircraft for a period not to exceed 90 days. Since the aircraft is unregistered, it cannot be operated outside of the United States until a permanent Certificate of Aircraft Registration is received and placed in the aircraft.

The FAA does not issue any certificate of ownership or endorse any information with respect to ownership on a Certificate of Aircraft Registration.

NOTE: For additional information concerning the Aircraft Registration Application or the Aircraft Bill of Sale, contact the nearest FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).

AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATE
An Airworthiness Certificate is issued by a representative of the FAA after the aircraft has been inspected, is found to meet the requirements of 14 CFR part 21, and is in condition for safe operation. The Airworthiness Certificate must be displayed in the aircraft so it is legible to the passengers and crew whenever it is operated. The Airworthiness Certificate is transferred with the aircraft except when it is sold to a foreign purchaser.

A Standard Airworthiness Certificate is issued for aircraft type certificate in the normal, utility, acrobatic, commuter, and transport categories or for manned free balloons. Figure 7-8 illustrates a Standard Airworthiness Certificate, and an explanation of each item in the certificate follows.

Item 1 Nationality—The "N" indicates the aircraft is registered in the United States. Registration marks consist of a series of up to five numbers or numbers and letters. In this case, N2631A is the registration number assigned to this airplane.

Item 2—Indicates the manufacturer, makes, and models of the aircraft.

Item 3—Indicates the manufacturer's serial number assigned to the aircraft, as noted on the aircraft data plate.

Item 4—Indicates the category in which the aircraft must be operated. In this case, it must be operated in accordance with the limitations specified for the "NORMAL" category.

Item 5—Indicates the aircraft conforms to its type certificate and is considered in condition for safe operation at the time of inspection and issuance of the certificate. Any exemptions from the applicable airworthiness standards are briefly noted here and the exemption number given. The word "NONE" is entered if no exemption exists.

Item 6—Indicates the Airworthiness Certificate is in effect indefinitely if the aircraft is maintained in accordance with 14 CFR parts 21, 43, and 91, and the aircraft is registered in the United States.

Also included are the date the certificate was issued and the signature and office identification of the FAA representative. A Standard Airworthiness Certificate remains in effect as long as the aircraft receives the required maintenance and is properly registered in the United States. Flight safety relies, in part, on the condition of the aircraft, which is determined by inspections performed by mechanics, approved repair stations, or manufacturers who meet specific requirements of 14 CFR part 43.

A Special Airworthiness Certificate is issued for all aircraft certificate in other than the Standard classifications, such as Experimental, Restricted, Limited, Provisional, and Sport Pilot. When purchasing an aircraft classified as other than Standard, it is recommended that the local FSDO be contacted for an explanation of the pertinent airworthiness requirements and the limitations of such a certificate.

SUPPLEMENTS (SECTION 9)
The Supplements section describes pertinent information necessary to safely and efficiently operate the airplane when equipped with the various optional systems and equipment not provided with the standard airplane. Some of this information may be supplied by the airplane manufacturer, or by the manufacturer of the optional equipment. The appropriate information is inserted into the flight manual at the time the equipment is installed. Autopilots, navigation systems, and air-conditioning systems are examples of equipment described in this section.

SAFETY TIPS (SECTION 10)
The Safety Tips section is an optional section containing a review of information that enhances the safe operation of the airplane. Some examples of the information that might be covered include physiological factors, general weather information, fuel conservation procedures, high altitude operations, and cold weather operations.

SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION (SECTION 7)
The Systems Description section is where the manufacturer describes the systems in enough detail for the pilot to understand how the systems operate. For more information on airplane systems, refer to Aircraft Systems.

HANDLING, SERVICE, AND MAINTENANCE (SECTION 8)
The Handling, Service, and Maintenance section describes the maintenance and inspections recommended by the manufacturer and the regulations.

Additional maintenance or inspections may be required by the issuance of Airworthiness Directives (AD) applicable to the airplane, engine, propeller, and components.

This section also describes preventive maintenance that may be accomplished by certificate pilots, as well as the manufacturer's recommended ground handling procedures. This includes considerations for hangaring, tie-down, and general storage procedures for the airplane.

PERFORMANCE (SECTION 5)
The Performance section contains all the information required by the aircraft certification regulations, and any additional performance information the manufacturer feels may enhance a pilot's ability to safely operate the airplane. Performance charts, tables, and graphs vary in style, but all contain the same basic information. Some examples of the performance information found in most flight manuals include a graph or table for converting calibrated airspeed into true airspeed; stall speeds in various configurations; and data for determining takeoff and climb performance, cruise performance, and landing performance. For more information on how to use the charts, graphs, and tables, refer to Aircraft Performance.

WEIGHT AND BALANCE/EQUIPMENT LIST (SECTION 6)
The Weight and Balance/Equipment List section contains all the information required by the FAA to calculate the weight and balance of the airplane.

Manufacturers include sample weight and balance problems. Weight and balance is discussed in greater detail in Weight and Balance.